Peter Singer in the solution to world hunger

Introduction Hunger is the craving for food that causes uneasy sensations. A person who lacks food for a prolonged period becomes exhausted and malnourished in the end (De Onis, Frongillo, and Blossner 1128). Reports indicate that 13.1% of the population in the world is hungry. In 2010, an approximated 7.6 million children died due to hunger. African countries such as Somalia, Niger, Zimbabwe, Malawi and Kenya face food scarcities form one time to another.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Peter Singer in the solution to world hunger specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The earth has the capability to produce enough food for the entire population, but the soils are not fully utilized. People in the developing nations have little potentiality to employ modernized agricultural practices and thus, they rely on lowly productive traditional methods. At the end of the day, people in developing countries are unwillingly struc k by hunger. Peter Singer position in the solution to world hunger Peter Singer is one of the most influential philosophers who encourage people to have a sense of compassion for the staving Africans. Singer has a strong belief that we collectively have significant duties to alleviate world hunger. It is ethical to have sympathy to those suffering from hunger, and according to Singer, we ought to strive to enhance the happiness of the human race by eradicating poverty. This paper analyses the topic on world hunger, why the topic is important in the study of ethics, and Peter Singer’s position on what we ought to do to alleviate world hunger. Why the topic is important to our study of ethics The hunger calamity that hits African countries from time to time has no direct distress to the people of the United States. However, the moral principles of the American people drive them to donate some of their income to help the starving nations. Peter Singer installs the moral obligati on of valuing human life. According to Singer, all lives are homogenously equivalent. Every individual’s life is highly valued, and the value cannot be stripped away whatsoever the case (Singer 366). Peter Singer’s perception of life plays a critical role in upgrading our moral ethics. Therefore, regardless of the difficult life situations, or the demanding need for extra cash, compassionate people will find it ethical to donate some of their income to the less privileged individuals. Generally, the topic on world hunger touches our inner soul, and though sacrifice and donations are not compulsory, we feel obligated to sacrifice for the sake of those starving individuals. Though we may not know the starving individuals at a personal level, compassionate love forms, and we do all the doable to save their lives. Peter Singer’s solution to world hunger that states that we all have significant duties to alleviate world hunger is a very important topic in our study o f ethics.Advertising Looking for essay on ethics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Peter Singer’s perception of what we ought to do to alleviate world hunger Peter Singer is so stringent on the issue of world hunger. Singer cannot withstand the fact that Americans are living luxurious lives whereas some people in Africa are dying of hunger. According to Singer, it is ethical for every person to work towards ensuring there is mutual happiness of the human kingdom. To alleviate world hunger, people ought to donate all monies spent on the luxurious lifestyles to charities that reach the starving individuals. According to Singer, whenever people spend unnecessarily, they enhance the death of innocent children (Singer 370). Recent reports indicate that Peter spares at least one-fifth of his earning for the sake of the less privileged. The money is given to famine relief agencies located across the globe to reach the starving individuals. Peter Singer could not bear up with the fact that he lives comfortably while some innocent children crave for food somewhere in the world. Singer holds that the Americans have the obligation to help the world’s poor and hungered individuals. In fact, Singer feels that his 20% donation is not enough, and that he needs to increase his donations. Arguments and reasons that Peter Singer gives in support of his position People have often criticized Peter Singer’s position in alleviating world hunger. They cannot find it logical to sacrifice all their luxuries and donate the monies to alleviate world hunger. Singer’s unwavering ethics causes divisive controversies wherever he goes. However, to drive the point home, Singer uses various illustrations from books and films. The most insinuating illustration involves Bob, a man who has invested a lot in a valuable Bugatti car. Bob loves his car to the extent that he opts to sacrifice the life of an innocent ch ild to save his car from being crashed by a runaway train. This sad incident portrays selfishness for luxury at the expense of a life. Peter Singer describes Bob as a fellow who does not know the value of life. Many audiences would feel that Bob’s deeds were gravely wrong. He could just let his Bugatti be smashed and save the life of the child. From the illustration, Singer likens the American’s who feel pinched in sacrificing their luxurious spending to save starving individuals. According to Peter Singer, people should judge their actions and determine if they are ethically worthy (Singer 373). People should ensure that the consequences of their actions are unbiased. There is the utilitarian stance of Singer that states that a person can sacrifice one life to save many. Though not practical, Singer points out that we can sacrifice the $9,000 spent annually on a child in the American families to save 45 African children. However, letting a child die in the name of sac rificing for a stranger is not only scandalous, but also ethically unacceptable.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Peter Singer in the solution to world hunger specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Conclusion From the discussions, it is noteworthy that Peter Singer insists on people to become selfless to alleviate world hunger. Singer stands strong to support his perception that people have to surrender their superfluous income to alleviate poverty. While Peter Singer’s utilitarianism is too much for people to handle, I would propose that people should donate the much they can. The famine relief agencies should then invest in projects that render long-lasting solutions to world hunger. Sustainability projects to alleviate poverty will work towards alleviating world hunger (Shaohua and Ravallion 3341). As stated before, the soils of the earth have the potentiality to produce enough food for every individual. Howe ver, the sad part of it is that those people in the developing nations do not have the capacity to invest in modernized and improvised agricultural practices. It is also noteworthy that a great percentage of the people in the developing nations do not have the financial potentiality to afford a balanced diet. Therefore, upgrading agriculture though investing in environmentally sustainable agricultural innovations, and investing in small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in the hunger stricken countries is the only way to alleviate hunger in the end. Works Cited De Onis, Mercedes, Edward Frongillo, and Monika Blossner. â€Å"Is Malnutrition Declining? An Analysis of Changes in Levels of Child Malnutrition since 1980.† Bulletin of the World Health Organization 98.5 (2000): 1222–1233. Print. Shaohua, Chen, and Martin Ravallion.  Ã¢â‚¬Å"How Have the World’s Poorest Fared since the Early 1980s?† World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 15.7 (2004): 3341. Print. S inger, Peter. â€Å"The Singer Solution to World Poverty.† In Best American Essays. Fourth Fourth College Edition Ed. Robert Atwan. Boston: Houghton Mifflin (2004): 366-373. Print. This essay on Peter Singer in the solution to world hunger was written and submitted by user Conner Y. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Japan1 essays

Japan1 essays During the 1980s, Japan had one of the most profitable and efficient economies in the world. But a recent recession has forced Japan to make changes and pushed them back, out of the realm of being an economic superpower. This leaves just one question; when analyzing Japans strengths and weakness, is it likely for them to return to the economic status they enjoyed during the 1980s? The answer is no. Because of Japanese false illusions, increasing national debt and deflation, combined with other factors, it is unlikely that Japan will be able to make a full recovery. When analyzing something as complex as a country suffering from a national recession, it is important to note their various strengths. During the 1980s, Japan exploded onto the global economic scene. The Japanese established themselves among the ranks of the United States and various European powers. One of the greatest strengths enjoyed by Japan is the absence of any military institution. After World War II, the United States, in congruence with the other allied powers, declared that Japan was no longer to have a national military. Just think about that, military expenses account for a great portion of any countries national budget. Japan, now without military, had large amounts of money freed up by this policy (Nishiyama, 2). They no longer had to endure the expenses of maintaining any standing military, nor did they have to invest money in keeping pace with military technological advancements. Instead, Japan was promised military assistance by the United States, if any s ituation were to arise. With more money available to the Japanese government, they were able to distribute more to other sectors of the country. This was an extreme boost for the economic situation of Japan and their citizens (Nishiyama, 2). But as time moved on, the United States slowly moved to lessen its role in the protection of Japan. They allowed J...

Kiva - Ancestral Pueblo Ceremonial Structures

Kiva - Ancestral Pueblo Ceremonial Structures A kiva is a special purpose building used by Ancestral Puebloan (previously known as Anasazi) people in the American southwest and Mexican northwest. The earliest, and simplest, examples of kivas are known from Chaco Canyon for the late Basketmaker III phase (500–700 CE). Kivas are still in use among contemporary Puebloan people, as a gathering place used when communities reunite to perform rituals and ceremonies.   Key Takeaways: Kiva A kiva is a ceremonial building used by Ancestral Puebloan people.The earliest are known from Chaco Canyon about 599 CE, and they are still used today by contemporary Puebloan people.  Archaeologists identify ancient kivas based on a series of architectural characteristics.They can be round or square, subterranean, semi-subterranean, or at ground level.  A sipapu in a kiva is a small hole thought to represent a door to the underworld. Kiva Functions Prehistorically, there was typically about one kiva for every 15 to 50 domestic structures. In modern pueblos, the number of kivas varies for each village. Kiva ceremonies today are mainly performed by male community members, although women and visitors can attend some of the performances. Among Eastern Pueblo groups kivas are usually round in shape, but among Western Puebloan groups (such as Hopi and Zuni) they are usually square. Although it is difficult to generalize across the entire American southwest over time, kivas likely function(ed) as meeting places, structures used by subsets of the community for a variety of socially integrative and domestic activities. Larger ones, called Great Kivas, are larger structures typically built by and for the whole community. They are typically greater than 30 m square in floor area. Kiva Architecture When archaeologists characterize a prehistoric structure as a kiva, they typically use the presence of one or more of several distinguishing traits, the most recognizable of which is being partly or completely underground: most kivas are entered through the roofs. The other common traits used to define kivas include deflectors, fire pits, benches, ventilators, floor vaults, wall niches, and sipapus. hearths or fire pits: hearths in the later kivas are lined with adobe brick and have rims or collars above the floor level and ash pits to the east or northeast of the hearthsdeflectors: a deflector is a method of keeping the ventilating wind from affecting the fire, and they range from stones set into the eastern lip of the adobe hearth to U-shaped walls partially surrounding the hearth complexventilator shafts oriented toward the east: all subterranean kivas need ventilation to be bearable, and roof ventilation shafts are typically oriented to the east although south-oriented shafts are common in the Western Anasazi region, and some kivas have second subsidiary openings to the west to provide increased airflow.benches or banquettes: some kivas have raised platforms or benches in place along the wallsfloor vaultsalso known as foot drums or spirit channels, floor vaults are subfloor channels radiating out from the central hearth or in parallel lines across the floorsipapus: a small h ole cut into the floor, a hole known in modern Puebloan cultures as shipap, the place of emergence or place of origin, where humans emerged from the underworld wall niches: recesses cut into the walls that may represent similar functions as sipapus and in some locations are part of painted murals These features arent always present in every kiva, and it has been suggested that in general, smaller communities used general use structures as occasional kivas, while larger communities had larger, ritually specialized facilities. Pithouse- Kiva Debate The main identifying characteristic of a prehistoric kiva is that it was built at least partly underground. This characteristic is linked by archaeologists to earlier subterranean but (mainly) residential pithouses, which were typical of ancestral Puebloan societies prior to the technological innovation of adobe brick. The changeover from subterranean houses as domestic residences to exclusively ritual functions is central to pithouse to pueblo transition models, associated as it is with the innovation of adobe brick technology. Adobe surface architecture spread across the Anasazi world between 900–1200 CE (depending on the region). The fact that a kiva is subterranean is not a coincidence: kivas are associated with origin myths  and the fact that theyre built subterranean may have to do with an  ancestral memory of when everyone lived underground. Archaeologists recognize when a pithouse functioned as a kiva by the characteristics listed above: but after about 1200, most structures were built above ground and subterranean structures stopped including features typical of a kiva. The debate centers on a handful of questions. Are those pithouses without kiva-like structures built after above-ground pueblos were common really kivas? Can it be that kivas built before above-ground structures are simply not being recognized? And eventually- is how archaeologists define a kiva truly representing kiva rituals? Mealing Rooms as Womens Kivas As has been noted in several ethnographic studies, kivas are primarily places where men congregate. Anthropologist Jeannette Mobley-Tanaka (1997) has suggested that womens rituals may have been associated with mealing houses. Mealing rooms or houses are subterranean structures where people (presumably women) ground maize. The rooms held artifacts and furniture associated with grain grinding, such as manos, metates, and hammerstones, and they also have corrugated pottery jars and bin storage facilities. Mobley-Tanaka noted that in her admittedly small test case, the ratio of mealing rooms to kivas is 1:1, and most mealing rooms were located geographically close to kivas. Great Kiva In Chaco Canyon, the better-known kivas were constructed between 1000 and 1100 CE, during the Classic Bonito phase. The largest of these structures are called Great Kivas, and large and small-sized kivas are associated with Great House sites, such as Pueblo Bonito, Peà ±asco Blanco, Chetro Ketl, and Pueblo Alto. In these sites, great kivas were built in central, open plazas. A different type is the isolated great kiva such as the site of Casa Rinconada, which probably functioned as a central place for adjacent, smaller communities. Archaeological excavations have shown that kiva roofs were supported by wooden beams. This wood, mainly from Ponderosa pines and spruces, had to come from a huge distance  since Chaco Canyon was a region poor of such forests. The use of timber, arriving at Chaco Canyon through such a long-distance network, must, therefore, have reflected an incredible symbolic power. In the Mimbres region, great kivas began to disappear by the mid-1100s or so, replaced by plazas, perhaps a result of contact with Mesoamerican groups on the Gulf Coast. Plazas provide public, visible space for shared communal activities in contrast to kivas, which are more private and hidden. Updated by K. Kris Hirst Selected Sources Crown, Patricia L., and W. H. Wills. Modifying Pottery and Kivas at Chaco: Pentimento, Restoration, or Renewal? American Antiquity 68.3 (2003): 511–32. Print.Gilman, Patricia, Marc Thompson, and Kristina Wyckoff. Ritual Change and the Distant: Mesoamerican Iconography, Scarlet Macaws, and Great Kivas in the Mimbres Region of Southwestern New Mexico. American Antiquity 79.1 (2014): 90–107. Print.Mills, Barbara J. What’s New in Chaco Research? Antiquity 92.364 (2018): 855–69. Print.Mobley-Tanaka, Jeannette L. Gender and Ritual Space During the Pithouse to Pueblo Transition: Subterranean Mealing Rooms in the North American Southwest. American Antiquity 62.3 (1997): 437–48. Print.Schaafsma, Polly. The Cave in the Kiva: The Kiva Niche and Painted Walls in the Rio Grande Valley. American Antiquity 74.4 (2009): 664–90. Print.

Patchwork Text Economic for Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Patchwork Text Economic for Business - Essay Example neration: how Britain has bankrupted its youth’ (Howker and Malik, 2010) and also on youth unemployment factors across the world along with their potential causes and solutions. The book, ‘Jilted Generation: how Britain has bankrupted its youth’ (Howker and Malik, 2010) focuses on the young generation of UK and the way political and economic climate has rendered them jilted. The poor economic condition of the youth leads to weak economic development in future, where they would be unable to pay off debts, receive healthcare and pension benefits. The authors of the book claim that the young generation of UK has received little benefits from the external environment to grow and prosper. This includes low training and development, late start of career, low educational growth and higher dependency on parents. If jobs are not available, then the young generation shall not be able to pay off debts or invest in house and property. Lack of earning also demotivates them to pursue higher qualification. Large sections of the youth take up smaller part-time jobs to support themselves. Since the youth cannot afford to buy houses by themselves, due to the high rental rates, they prefer living with their parents. Therefore, they remain to be in the shade and care of their parents, which causes them to develop lack of self-sustaining abilities. The dependency factor has also led them to be less serious about education and growth. However, the young generation does not compromise on receiving the basic education that would provide them with jobs; however, owing to lack of experience, they are ignored by companies. In order to eradicate the problem of youth employment, the U.K. government had taken measures such as, ‘Mandatory Work Activity’ and ‘The Young People Trailblazer’. Under such programs, the youth received training from reputed companies like, Tesco, Primark and several street store organizations and the selected good performers were offered jobs in the

Marketing Plan Harley-Davidson Dyna Street Bob Research Paper

Marketing Plan Harley-Davidson Dyna Street Bob - Research Paper Example It is acknowledged by reader that information to be furnished in this marketing plan is in all respects confidential in nature, other than information which is in the public domain through other means and that any disclosure or use of same by reader may cause serious harm or damage to ______________. Upon request, this document is to be immediately returned to ________. ___________________ Signature ___________________ Name (typed or printed) ___________________ Date This is a marketing plan. It does not imply an offering of securities. ... Over the years, the firm has met numerous challenges as well as successes. Currently, Harley-Davidson has a number of motorbikes designed and targeted at different demographic groups. Among these is the Dyna Street Bob which is a sporting motorbike targeted at the younger generations. This product is intended to bring new marketing orientation in the market. This is because although it is targeted at the young people in general, it is also targeted at women as a new market. More women are becoming more interested in motor-biking and this is a new market which Harley-Davidson should use for to expand its market share of the motorbike market. As Taylor (para 1) says, Harley-Davidson has been accused of not targeting new markets and this will be an opportunity to look at the new market. 2.0 Situational Analysis In 1907 William Harley and Arthur Davidson incorporated the Harley-Davidson Motorcycle Company. AMF acquired the company in 1969 and nearly tripled production in the following 4 years. Increased production led to poorly performing products, which led to Honda gaining market segment and eventually a buyout of AMF in 1981 by Vaughn Beals and a group of other HD managers. Over the next 20 years HD incorporated lean operating principles, acquired rival companies effectively opening new niche markets and survived an instance of a primary lender refusing to advance further cash. In 1997 a former Honda manager, Berryman, revamped HD’s supply chain management system to further reduce waste. Subsequently a focus was placed on products that would open up more niche markets and help move HD away from their typical target demographic. Today HD realizes increased profits and revenues from these changes, but also faces

Myths About Embryonic Stem Cell Research :: Argumentative Persuasive Topics

Myths About Embryonic Stem Cell Research Myth: "Human life begins in the womb, not the Petri dish" Reality: Actually, it usually begins in the fallopian tube, but it can also begin in a Petri dish. The testimony of modern science is clear on this point: "At the moment the sperm cell of the human male meets the ovum of the female and the union results in a fertilized ovum (zygote), a new life has begun." Considine, Douglas (ed.). Van Nostrand's Scientific Encyclopedia. 5th edition. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1976, p. 943. See Moore, Keith L. Essentials of Human Embryology. Toronto: B.C. Decker Inc, 1988, p.2; Dox, Ida G. et al. The Harper Collins Illustrated Medical Dictionary. New York: Harper Perennial, 1993, p. 146; Sadler, T.W. Langman's Medical Embryology. 7th edition. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins 1995, p. 3; Carlson, Bruce M. Patten's Foundations of Embryology. 6th edition. New York: McGraw_Hill, 1996, p. 3. The issue is not whether human life is present, but how society ought to treat it. Even President Clinton's bioethics advisors said: "We believe most would agree that human embryos deserve respect as a form of human life..." - National Bioethics Advisory Commission on stem cell research, September 1999 (emphasis added) "Stem cell research" refers to research using stem cells that come from embryos or other sources, such as adult tissue, placentas, or umbilical cord blood. The only way to obtain embryonic stem cells, however, is to kill the living human embryo. The embryos killed for their stems cells are about a week old and have grown to about 200 cells. Embryonic stem cells have not helped a single human patient, while adult stem cells and similar ethically acceptable alternatives have helped hundreds of thousands. Myth: "Excess embryos are going to be discarded anyway" Reality: Not necessarily. Today, parents can preserve "excess" embryos for future pregnancies as well as donate them to other couples. Under proposed NIH guidelines, parents will be asked to consider having them destroyed for federally-funded research instead. In a recent study, 59% of parents who initially planned to discard their embryos after three years later changed their minds, choosing another pregnancy or donation to infertile couples. New England Journal of Medicine, July 5, 2001. With the NIH guidelines, these embryos might have already been destroyed. Myths About Embryonic Stem Cell Research :: Argumentative Persuasive Topics Myths About Embryonic Stem Cell Research Myth: "Human life begins in the womb, not the Petri dish" Reality: Actually, it usually begins in the fallopian tube, but it can also begin in a Petri dish. The testimony of modern science is clear on this point: "At the moment the sperm cell of the human male meets the ovum of the female and the union results in a fertilized ovum (zygote), a new life has begun." Considine, Douglas (ed.). Van Nostrand's Scientific Encyclopedia. 5th edition. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1976, p. 943. See Moore, Keith L. Essentials of Human Embryology. Toronto: B.C. Decker Inc, 1988, p.2; Dox, Ida G. et al. The Harper Collins Illustrated Medical Dictionary. New York: Harper Perennial, 1993, p. 146; Sadler, T.W. Langman's Medical Embryology. 7th edition. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins 1995, p. 3; Carlson, Bruce M. Patten's Foundations of Embryology. 6th edition. New York: McGraw_Hill, 1996, p. 3. The issue is not whether human life is present, but how society ought to treat it. Even President Clinton's bioethics advisors said: "We believe most would agree that human embryos deserve respect as a form of human life..." - National Bioethics Advisory Commission on stem cell research, September 1999 (emphasis added) "Stem cell research" refers to research using stem cells that come from embryos or other sources, such as adult tissue, placentas, or umbilical cord blood. The only way to obtain embryonic stem cells, however, is to kill the living human embryo. The embryos killed for their stems cells are about a week old and have grown to about 200 cells. Embryonic stem cells have not helped a single human patient, while adult stem cells and similar ethically acceptable alternatives have helped hundreds of thousands. Myth: "Excess embryos are going to be discarded anyway" Reality: Not necessarily. Today, parents can preserve "excess" embryos for future pregnancies as well as donate them to other couples. Under proposed NIH guidelines, parents will be asked to consider having them destroyed for federally-funded research instead. In a recent study, 59% of parents who initially planned to discard their embryos after three years later changed their minds, choosing another pregnancy or donation to infertile couples. New England Journal of Medicine, July 5, 2001. With the NIH guidelines, these embryos might have already been destroyed.

Human Rights

In measuring the extent to which the European regional approach to human rights protection offers advantages over the United Nations international approach, the various mechanisms contained within both systems must be compared and analysed. An explanation of the various international treaties and the drafting of the European Convention will require some consideration in order to assess the overall effectiveness of the machinery’s established under both systems for the protection of human rights. Particular reference will be made to the right not to be subjected to ‘torture or to inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment’ who’s universal condemnation stems back to the impunity for horrific crimes against humanity committed during the First and Second World War thus prompting in 1945, the first formal recognition of the importance of protecting human rights in the international order through the United Nations Charter and the Nuremberg Charter. The United Nations Charter sets out its purposes as â€Å"promoting and encouraging respect for all human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ and although the declarations are no more than aspirational, they support principles of liberty and individual freedoms that have subsequently formed the content of specific rights treaties. Torture is received with strong universal condemnation, and although there is no absolute definition, its prohibition is emphasised in several international legal instruments such as; the Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948 (UDHR), the European Convention on Human Rights 1950 (ECHR), and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966 (ICCPR), each in similar language, providing that ‘no one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment’ The Convention against Torture and Other Cruel Inhuman or degrading Treatment gives a precise definition in Article 1 and requires parties to take effective measures to prevent it in any territory under its jurisdiction calling on all States to ensure that all acts of torture are included offences under their domestic criminal laws, including attempts and complicity as well as participation. Similar steps are taken within the European Convention of Human Rights which imposes an obligation on each Contracting Party to secure those rights are within their jurisdiction. However, at international level, under the statutes of criminal tribunals, torture can only be prosecuted if it falls within the category of war crimes. In addition to this, the lack of effective enforcement mechanisms within some States undermines the effectiveness of the international human rights system. The International Court of Justice (ICJ) hears cases involving disputes between nation-states and Article 30 of the Convention provides that, â€Å"any dispute between two State parties concerning its interpretation or application which has not been possible to settle through negotiation or arbitration may be submitted to ICJ by one of the States. † A failure of this allows for a claim to be submitted to the ICJ requesting that the Court apply measures requiring the Respondent to take all steps within its power to ensure the rules of international law will be correctly applied. † The problem then lies in the fact that in order for the International Court of Justice to hear a case, the State parties to the dispute must accept its jurisdiction. This is borne from the fact that International lawyers will agree that an international agreement is not legally binding unless the parties intend it to be and is therefore more of an understanding or agreement between the States. This is considered a problem with enforcement at international level as rights contained in the Conventions need to be balanced with the States sovereignty. By contrast, where the United Kingdom and other countries have incorporated the Human Rights Act 1998 within its judicial system, a natural consequence of this is that to an extent, they diminish and undermine the position of Parliament as an exclusive law giver for the UK providing that all domestic law is compatible with the rights contained within the Human Rights Act. Another fundament difference at regional level is where the Convention establishes its own machinery for the enforcement of these rights. Applications made based on a violation of Article 3 can be bought either by a member state on behalf of an individual victim by another High Contracting Party, or by a member state bringing an application against another state and allows for a more effective and immediate remedy at the domestic level as opposed to using the international machinery at Strasbourg. The latter is highlighted in Ireland v United Kingdom where an application was brought by the Irish government in relation to the treatment of Irish nationals by the British authorities. The ECtHR’s general approach on finding a violation of Article 3 relied on the concept that the burden of proof was borne not by one or other of the two Governments concerned, but mainly on the evidence of the ne hundred witnesses heard in, and on the medical reports relating to each case. Based on the allegations against the UK, the Commission estimated that the ‘five techniques’ administered by the police constituted a practice of inhuman and degrading treatment. In finding this, the Commission emphasised that ill treatment must attain a minimum level of severity if it is to fall within the scope of Article 3 and asserted that it depends on all the circumstances of the case, such as the duration of the treatment, its mental effects, and in some cases the sex, age and state of health of the victim. The scope of the Convention was extended so as to imply intention within its meaning in accordance with the UN Resolution. The approach is further laid down in Askoy v Turkeywhich concerned a Turkish national who had been subjected to a form of torture known as ‘Palestine hanging’ which resulted in him losing the movement of his arms and hands. Due to the form of torture requiring the applicant to be stripped naked with his hands tied behind his back, as well as being strung up by his arms, the courts found that such an act would have required preparation and was therefore deliberately carried out. Damages, were awarded on behalf of the Turkish state. The methods adopted under each case in their application under the law has imposed upon its members the Courts’ power to make judicial decisions that are enforceable on the offending State. Much of its success can be placed on the basis that each Contracting State is, in an economical sense, more equipped and politically empowered with the resources to adhere to the principles laid down within the Convention. This was the situation in 2009 where Belgium instituted proceedings before the International Court of Justice against Senegal on the grounds that a dispute existed regarding Senegal’s compliance with its obligation to prosecute a suspect for acts of torture under the Convention. The main reason for non compliance rested on financial difficulties which prevented Senegal from organising a trial more important, on the grounds that â€Å"crimes against humanity did not form part of Senegalese criminal law. Another advantage the European regional approach to human rights protection has over international law is its rights contained in Part I of the Convention. These rights identify a number of civil and political rights requiring protection from arbitrary and despotic governments amongst other important rights, such as the right to life. In this context, the individual holds a clearly defined right against the State in that the violation of that right can be tested in a court of law. So it is questionable whether international law is equipped to deal with individual rights of an economic and cultural nature, and in particular, where third generation rights are concerned. This is illustrate in the ICCPR Article 2(1) which states that â€Å"Each Party to the present Covenant undertakes to respect and to ensure that all individuals within its territory and subject to its jurisdiction the rights recognised in the Covenant, without distinction of any kind† However, Article 2(1) of the ICESCR states that â€Å"Every State Party to the present Covenant undertakes to take steps to the maximum of its available resources, with a view of achieving progressively the full realisation of the rights recognised in the present Covenant by all appropriate means†¦ † So although the international approach provides a mechanism by which all States can agree universal standards of human rights, there exists in some States, a hierarchy of rights that are considered perhaps, less important than others, where importance on a particular right is based on social, cultural and political factors. In further support of his view, it is suffice to say that the rig ht to freedom of religion and belief is accompanied by constraints of Article 5 in that such violations can lead to such things as imprisonment, torture and restrictions on freedom of belief and association. An important example is the People’s Republic of China’s ‘one-child’ policy and forced abortions which has been seen as restrictions on not only freedom of religion and belief, but also the torture of detainees in Chinese detention centres and prisons. Although the policy was designed as a temporary measure, it portrays a clear violation of human rights derived out of political necessity to limit communist China's population growth. In the promotion and protection of human rights, the Committee against Torture (CAT) considers periodic reports from High Contracting States every four years and deals with both inter-state complaints and individual complaints. Alongside this, the 2006 Optional Protocol to the Convention against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (OPCAT) provides for the establishment of â€Å"a system of regular visits undertaken by independent international and national bodies to places where people are deprived of their liberty, in order to prevent torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment,† to be overseen by a Subcommittee on Prevention of Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment. In addition, the Human Rights Council requires its members to go through a periodic review of their own human rights. This allows individual or group complaints to be examined for evidence of a pattern of human rights by the Sub-Commission Council on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities which are then referred to the Working Group on Situations. In accordance with General Assembly Resolution 60/251, Rapporteurs can undertake visits with the consent of the State concerned and report back to the Human Rights Council. In a recent UN Special Rapporteur on Torture, the Rapporteur’s findings highlighted the gap between China’s obligations under five of the international human rights treaties and the reality on the ground. In particular, Dr Nowak pointed out the â€Å"incentives for the police and security officials to obtain confessions through torture and the lack of independent, far and accessible courts and prosecutors, as well as ambiguity of the domestic law regarding political crimes. † The Rapporteur found that in all cases it observed, each victim had been convicted of a political crime, possibly on the basis of information extracted by torture. On these facts, the Special Rapporteur appealed to the Government to release its victims, and added in their conclusions that considering the gravity of such findings, â€Å"the international community must not waste further time and act immediately to pressure China to end all use of torture and bring justice to those responsible. † The report included a set of 23 recommendations for China to act upon, as matter of urgency, in-order to abolish the use of torture. These included setting up mechanisms of investigation and prosecution of perpetrators of torture; prevention through safeguards in the criminal law system; ratification of international conventions and their implementation; the abolition of political crimes from domestic law; the guaranteeing of freedom of speech, assembly, association and religion; and the abolition of forced re-education in detention. The UN Commission on Human Rights referred all reports of its mechanisms to the newly established Human Rights Council for further consideration at its First Session in June 2006. In response, the General Assembly adopted resolutions aimed primarily at the principles contained in the Charter of the United Nations and the UDHR by re-emphasising, reaffirming and re-acknowledging human rights However, despite the Rapporteur visits and attempts to expose China’s breaches, a United Nations â€Å"review† of China’s human rights record highlighted the weakness of a new procedure that was supposed to be the chief improvement in the U. N. ‘s reformed human rights system. In despite of this, China continues to in its pursuit of human rights violations as it was reported no soon after that China has a network of secret ‘black jails’ for people who dare to complain about life under the Communist regime. Findings suggested up to 10,000 citizens a year are hauled off the streets, locked up and beaten in the makeshift prisons. By contrast, the European regional system has in place a mechanism whereby a Committee, established under the European Torture Convention 1987, visits detention centres in order to ascertain whether conditions contained within the Convention are being adhered to. This in itself places pressure on its member states to conform to the standards set by the ECHR while maintaining protective measures for individuals considered at risk. In this sense, the Convention adopts a preventative approach to the issue of torture, and in doing so, highlights the fact that where States are poorly monitored and enforced, countries face little or no penalty for failure to uphold human rights standards. On the contrary, where all else has failed under international measures and a government refuses to uphold the declaration and instead treats its members of its own society in a cruel or inhuman manner, the United Nations and has the power to authorise military action against that country in violation of the Declaration. Perhaps the first experiment of UN intervention is the Korean War where in 1950 America called on the United Nations to use force to get the North Koreans out as they had ignored the Security Council’s resolution of June 25th. This later resulted in U. S military intervention. The Korean War provides sufficient evidence that when the U. N. Security Council threatens the use of force to enforce its resolutions, it can follow through. Although in reality, the Council has passed a significant number of resolutions over the years that have not been carried out which signifies reluctance by the Council to enforce a resolution in circumstances where intervention is necessary unless such enforcement carries with it a political dilemma. In support of this point is the use of force in Iraq where the UN enforced resolution 1441 through Baghdad’s failure to rid itself of its alleged weapons of mass destruction. The Iraq situation raised a similar issue for the Council regarding Korea whereby they could either approve Bush’s request to use force in Iraq based on American intelligence and on an American timetable, and risk being seen by other countries as complicit with the Bush administration, or defy the U. S. president and risk being considered irrelevant by the world's largest military power. Chesterman, a senior associate at the International Peace Academy stated in response that, â€Å"the issue of the U. N. ’s relevance comes up regularly, and every couple of years the United Nations faces a crises over its legitimacy† citing debate over its roles in the Balkans, the Gulf War and Somalia. The protection and enforcement mechanisms employed by international law suggests that it is focussed primarily on regulating state behaviour, whereas European regional law has its objectives aimed in the movement towards protecting individuals from the state. And although international law has increasingly been involved in identifying individual rights and holding individuals accountable, is still to an extent has in most cases been those who have been involved in political affairs. As mentioned earlier, states have a duty to investigate, prosecute or extradite individual perpetrators, and if they fail or are unwilling to do so, other states and international courts can step forward instead. In 1998, former Chilean President Augusto Pinochet was arrested in London following the request for extradite from Spain. The charges involved forms of torture committed during his term in office. In 2000, Hissene Habre, former president of Chad was indicted by the state prosecutor of Senegal for similar offences. That same year, a Belgian Tribunal de premiere instance issued an international arrest warrant against Abdoulaye Y. Ndombasi, the then Foreign Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. This was a direct application of the principle of universal jurisdiction which allows national courts to try cases of the gravest crimes against humanity, even if these crimes are not committed in the national territory and even if they are committed by government leaders of other states. However, the International Court of Justice found that the arrest warrant against Ndombasi failed to respect the immunity from criminal jurisdiction and the inviolability which he could enjoy under international law. The 2001 extradite of former naval officer Ricardo Cavallo highlights the first case in whereby as person can be accused of crimes committed on one country, be arrested in a second, and then extradited by a third. Where Europe is concerned, the Courts tend to delve deeper into the interpretation and application of the right to freedom from torture by distinguishing the terms torture, inhuman, degrading treatment and punishment separately. This has enabled the courts the discretion to apply the wording of Article 3 more widely. In particular, where there is the risk of a future violation of this right. Peers v Greece provides another example of the extent to which the Courts have laid down the importance of such treatment that falls below torture. In this case the applicant complained that he had been detained in cramped cell conditions with no ventilation and an open toilet. Although the Court held there to be no evidence of a positive intention to humiliate or debase the applicant, the fact that the state had taken no measures to improve the conditions amounted to a lack of respect for the applicant and was therefore a violation of Article 3. What is apparent between the two systems is the objective on the one hand by the international system, to act as a potential means of conflict resolution, and although to an extent Europe provides its own mechanisms for maintaining its state affairs, the system it has in place has greater level of cooperation which allows the emphasis to be placed specifically on individual rights. At the same time, although many States have become party to the United Nations Convention against torture, there appears to be a lack of effective enforcement mechanisms in place within some States, which in turn violates the general obligations to punish crimes against international humanitarian law. And where the UN has, throughout the fifty years, in amended and reformed its treaties so as to bring those violators in breach of the declaration to justice, it has still, in many instances lacked the will or faced the veto, and as a result, murderous regimes enjoy impunity. The root of this lies perhaps, in the fact that the UN organises a legal institution by letting States decide by majority vote who does and who does not deserve to be shamed for human rights abuses, which in turn creates a political process in which political factors play a major role. Countries that are shamed tend to be both violators and politically vulnerable in multilateral settings. This is the case in particular where, although the UN and NATO is willing to go into Yugoslavia and launch air strikes in order to prevent violations of human rights, there are continuous reports of violations in China and by the Chinese upon its people. To conclude, it could be argued that that the UN is less likely to enforce human rights in countries that are permanent members, and where this could be the case, international law will potentially be the most influential source of law. In support of this view, recent reports have suggested that countries like China simply sidestepped censure by garnering enough support to block attempts by the U. S. or other Western nations to scrutinize their records. Meanwhile, Cuba and others complained that the U. S. was too powerful to face thorough examination. By contrast, European law has effective measures that ensure state supremacy is spread evenly throughout the system. At the same time, both international law and European law can be deemed as fundamentally Western as most international law is based on Western notions. On that note alone, and in measuring the extent to which the European regional approach to human rights protection offers advantages over the United Nations international approach, the overall effectiveness of both systems, if based entirely on their Western notions, combined with both political and economical factors, present a framework which is more compliant with the international laws on human rights, in particular where cases of torture are concerned. And with that being said, one fundamental advantage that exists within the regional system is that when compared to international law, Europe does not have to deal with the majority of the more vulnerable states that fall within the realms of international law. Human Rights the question of human rights has received a great deal of attention. Today, violation of human rights is seriously taken note of by international bodies and by champions of democracy. It is in this backdrop that most countries have set up their own independent National Human Rights Commissions. Human rights are those rights which are fundamental for living and for normal human existence. They are based on the concept that every man and woman, irrespective of caste, creed, colour, race and nationality is born with certain fundamental rights such as, right to live, speech, freedom, justice, etc.These rights are, therefore, enshrined in the constitution of the countries. In order, that these basic rights are maintained and adhered to by the nations of the world, United Nations Organisation adopted a Charter of human rights soon after its formation. The Universal Declaration of Human rights which UN adopted on 10th Dec. 1948 enumerates some of these basic rights of man. These are rights to live, liberty and security of person, right to freedom of speech, judicial remedy, freedom of movement, right to take part in the governance of one’s country, etc. The second types of rights are economic and social rights.These are the right to work, right to live with dignity, right to rest and leisure, right to education, equal pay for equal work, right to equality, etc. The problem of human rights is that people and countries have a different understanding of the term and its protection. In some counties political and civil rights are not given or guaranteed to all its citizens. In some other countries, economic and social rights are not enforced, Therefore, the basic idea behind stressing human rights is that all governments should try to maintain these fundamental rights and see that all types of discrimination in this respect are rooted out.Nevertheless, many types of discrimination and violation of human rights are seen in different parts of the world. It is true th at racial discrimination known as ‘Apartheid’ as existed in South Africa formerly no longer exists in the world. Yet today, people are forced to flee their land of birth and forced to live in refugee camps under miserable conditions. Today minorities in many parts of the world have no political rights. The story of Ms. Suu Kyi Myanmar is a shining example in this respect. Cruelty to prisoners of war, unjust treatment of prisoners in jail, economic discrimination, casteism, rape, child labour, child prostitution, etc. are other forms of violation of human rights. Protection and maintenance of human rights is a fundamental duty of every government. International organisations and watchdogs such as, UNO, International Human Rights Commission, etc. , can play a vital role in ensuring the implementation of these basic rights. Countries, particularly the democratic countries, must stand together in this respect and take necessary persuasive and even coercive actions, to see t hat these fundamental human rights are adhered to by people, organisations and countries all over the world.