The different Financial Management Practices in business - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 11 Words: 3315 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Compare and contrast essay Did you like this example? The previous section provides a review of SME and financial management. This section reviews SME financial management practices in the developed economies such as the USA, Canada, the UK and Australia. The context of financial management practices Financial management practices in the SME sector have long attracted the attention of researchers. Depending on different objectives, researchers emphasize different aspects of financial management practices. McMahon, Holmes, Hutchinson and Forsaith (1993) and McMahon (1998) summarize their review of financial management practices in Australia, the UK and the USA. In their review the context of financial management practices includes the following areas: Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The different Financial Management Practices in business" essay for you Create order Financial reporting and analysis the nature, frequency and purpose of financial reporting, auditing, analysis and interpretation of financial performance Working capital management non-financial and financial considerations in asset acquisition, quantitative techniques for capital project evaluation, investment hurdle rate determination and handling risk an uncertainty in this context Financial structure management financial leverage or gearing, accounting to lenders, knowledge of sources and uses of finance, non-financial and financial considerations in financial structure decisions and non-financial and financial considerations in profit distribution decisions Financial planning and control financial objectives and targets, cost-volume-profit analysis, pricing, financial budgeting and control, and management responsibility centers However, the purpose of this study is not to cover all the contexts of financial management practices as indicated above but to review selected financial management practices that affect on or are related to SME profitability. These include accounting information systems, financial reporting and analysis, working capital management, fixed asset management, and capital structure management. 2.3.1 Financial reporting and analysis Recording and organizing the accounting information systems will not meet objectives unless reports from systems are analyzed and used for making managerial decisions. This section provides a review of financial reporting and analysis of SMEs. Louma (1967) conducted a survey of 62 manufacturing SMEs on the use of accounting information in managerial decision-making. 86% of respondents reported that they used some form of financial statement analysis and interpretation. Of these, 40% indicated that the founder of the businesses was actively involved. In their survey, DeThomas and Fredenberger (1985) found that 81 percent of the small enterprises regularly obtained summary financial information. Ninety-one percent of the summary information was in the form of traditional financial statements (balance sheets, profit and loss statements, fund statements), the remainder being bank reconciliation and operating summaries whereas no business was regularly receiving cash-flow information. DeThomas and Fredenberger also found that 61 percent of respondents felt the financial statements provided the information they required for planning and decision-making. Nevertheless, only 11 percent of respondents reported that they had used financial statement information formally as part of managerial evaluation, planning and decision-making, 2 percent of businesses utilized financial ratio analysis, and few made even simple historical comparisons. Thomas and Evanson (1987) studied 398 small pharmacies (in Michigan, North Carolina, Nebraska, Rhode Island and Washington) to examine the extent to which financial ratios were used in a specific line of small retail business and tested for a relationship between use of financial ratios and business success. They used regression analysis to examine the relationship between financial ratio usage and SME profitability. However, they could not demonstrate any significant relationship between earnings-to-sales and the number of financial ratios used by the owner in operational decision-making. When efforts were made to include the effects of other managerial practices and variations in business environments, no association between use of individual ratios and total earnings or totalto-sales was found. They explained the lack of association between financial ratio usage and either survival or profitability, may also indicate that the level of sophistication in use of ratios has not reache d a high enough level among pharmacies to make a discernible difference between those which use and those which do not use financial ratios. However, Thomas and Evanson (1987)s study only examined the association between SME profitability and the number of financial ratios, while the relationship between SME profitability and the efficiency as the result of using the financial ratios was not studied. McMahon (1998) examined which enterprises and financial management characteristics seem to most influence financial reporting practices adopted in small and medium-sized manufacturing enterprises in Australia and what impact these financial reporting practices appear to have on achieved business growth and performance. The research results showed that development orientation, extent of owner-management, technological complexity, degree of reliance upon external financial advice, and financial reporting climate significantly influence on the comprehensiveness of financial reporting practices in Australian small manufacturing enterprises. According to McMahon (1998) the relationship between financial reporting practices and business growth and performance is difficult to identify, describe and explain. The reason explained for this is that management is a complex activity affected by a myriad of interacting internal and external factors. Recently, McMahon (1999) reported new empirical evidence on financial reporting to financiers by small and medium-sized enterprises and found a significant relationship exists in the study sample between enterprise size in employment terms and provision to financiers of a business plan or future-oriented financial statements or annual historical financial statements or periodic historical financial statement. However, no statistically significant relationship exists in the study sample between enterprise size in employment terms and the likelihood of being asked to provide financial information by potential financiers. 2.3.2 Working capital management This subsection reviews the literature on working capital management practices of SMEs.The context of working capital management includes cash management, receivables and payables management, and inventory management. Regarding cash management practices, Grablowsky (1978) and Grablowsky and Rowell (1980) conducted a questionnaire survey concerned with the cash management practices of 66 small enterprises from a number of industries located in and around Norfolk, Virginia. The results showed that 67% of respondents replied they did not do forecasting of cash flows. When asked how they determined the level of cash to be held by the business, less than 10% of enterprises reported using any type of quantitative technique. The method most often employed was to hold cash as a fixed ratio of projected expenses, forecasted sales or anticipated purchases. Non-quantitative methods used consisted of meeting compensating balance requirements, maintaining the level considered safe by management or achieving a level recommended by outside advisers. Additionally, 71% of business in the Virginia survey reported that they had no short-term surpluses of cash in their recent history. Only 23% had a long-term surplus. Nearly 30% of respondents had invested excess cash in earnings securities or accounts. The most common investments were savings accounts, certificates of deposit, treasury bills, repurchase agreements, commercial papers, shares, bonds and other investments. Regarding accounts receivable management practices, Grablowsky (1976) and Grablowsky and Rowell (1980) found generally low standards. Approximately 95% of businesses that sold on credit tended to sell to anyone who wished to buy. Only 30% of respondents subscribed to a regular credit reporting service. Most had no credit checking procedures and guidelines, and only 52% enforced a late-payment charge. 34% of businesses had no formal procedure for aging accounts receivable. Bad debts averaged 1.75% of sales, with a high of 10% in some concerns. Murphy (1978) revealed a very high level of awareness and utilization of credit control systems in the UK, even in the smallest businesses. On inventory management practices, Grablowsky and Rowell (1980) found that most of the respondents had in excess of 30% of their capital invested in inventory, the general standard of inventory management was poor. Only 6% of businesses in their survey used a quantitative technique such as economic order quantity for optimizing inventory and 54% had systems which were unable to provide information on inventory turnover, reorder points, ordering costs or carrying costs. In general, depending upon their objectives, in examining working capital management practices, the previous researchers emphasized specific aspects of working capital management. Burns and Walker (1991) examined working capital management as a whole. In their survey of working capital policy among small manufacturing firms in the USA, the following aspects of working capital were considered: working capital policy, managing working capital components, including cash, receivable, payable and inventory management, and relationships between working capital management practices and profitability Probably this survey was one of the most comprehensive surveys of working capital management practices where almost all aspects of working capital management were examined. Burns and Walkers (1991) findings can be summarized into some main points as follows: Overall, companies had an informal procedure or no written policy for working capital management. However, those that did have a written policy were probably more profitable than others. For cash management, the typical company used cash budgeting on a weekly basis mainly to plan for shortages and surpluses of cash. Company would determine target cash balances based on needs for transaction balances, and put its idle cash in cash management accounts or certificates of deposit. For accounts receivable, the typical company used both the collection period and aging schedule to monitor the payment behavior of credit customers. With regard to inventory policy, the typical firm used computerized inventory control systems to decide on the appropriate amount to replenish its storage points by using ad hoc decisions. Company mainly considered the availability of parts and materials in deciding on reorder quantities for inventory purchased. As for accounts payable, the typical firm became a net supplier of credit believing that the cost of foregoing trade discounts was only about 13%, yet it always or sometimes took the discounts. In summary, working capital management practices have long attracted the attention of previous researchers. The main research areas related to these practices included cash, receivable and inventory management. However, relationships between working capital management practices and SMEs survival and growth have not been investigated. 2.3.3 Fixed Assets Management This subsection reviews the previous researches on fixed asset management practices of SMEs. Brigham (1992) suggested that capital budgeting might be more important to asmaller firm than its larger counterparts because of the lack of access to the publicmarkets for funding. Capital budgeting has attracted researchers over the past severaldecades. McMahon et al. (1993) claimed the earliest study of capital budgeting of SMEswas reported by Soldofsky (1964). During 1961, Soldofsky interviewed 126 owners ofsmall manufacturing businesses in Iowa and the results were published in 1964. Soldofsky (1964) found there was considerable variation in the methods of calculating payback period and in determining payback standards. In many businesses, required payback periods were flexible according to circumstances such as the variability of cash, planned product changes and business outlook. In the smaller enterprises, approvals for capital outlays tended to be given as required, whereas larger concerns were more likely to have annual capital budgets. Only four firms attempted to calculat e some variation of the average cost of capital for use as a hurdle rate for capital projects. Most businesses seemed unaware of the link between their financing and investment decisions. On the positive side, it was quite clear that the evaluation of capital projects was heavily cash flow oriented. Regarding capital project selection techniques, there were several surveysconducted by previous researchers such as Soldofsky (1964), Luoma (1967), Grablowsky and Burns (1980), Proctor and Canada (1992), and Block (1997). Soldofsky (1964) found that around 58 percent of respondents used payback period methods whereas only 4.1 percent employed accounting rate of return technique. Blocks (1997) survey of 232 small businesses in the USA indicated payback method remains the dominant method of investment selection for small businesses, whereas large corporations widely incorporate discounted cash flow models in financial analysis of capital investment proposals (Proctor and Canada, 1992). This is not evidence of a lack of sophistication as much as it is a reflection of financial pressures put on the small business owner by financial institutions. The question to be answered is not always how profitable the project is, but how quickly a loan can be paid back. Nevertheless, more sophisticated methods using discounted cash flow (IRR and NPV) have increased in use over time. Scott et al. (1972) examined the capital investment evaluation procedures of 135 small manufacturing enterprises in the USA and the following are some principal findings: 84% of respondents indicated that some investments were necessary in the short-run, regardless of their profitability. Payback period was used to evaluate capital projects by 51% of respondents, while 30% reported use of some variation of accounting rate of return. Only 10% reported use of discount cash flow methods such as net present value (5%) and internal rate of return (2 percent). This finding is consistent with the Louma (1967), Grablowsky and Burns (1980) findings of a tendency in using simple and complicated methods of capital investment project evaluation. 61% of respondents indicated that they screened capital expenditures by comparing the expected rate of return on investment with the cost of capital or some cost of financing. In summary, the previous findings related to fixed asset management practices reveal that Payback period method continues keeping its dominant position in evaluating capital investment projects of SMEs. 2.3.4 Capital structure management This current subsection reviews capital structure management or financial management practices related to the decisions of sources of financing. It includes examining what factors affect capital structure decisions and how capital structure impact on SME growth and survival. Small companies frequently suffer from a particular financial problem lack of a capital base. Small businesses are usually managed by their owners and available capital is limited to access to equity markets, and in the early stages of their existence owners find it difficult in building up revenue reserves if the owner-managers are to survive. A question concerns how small businesses determine sources of finance in such difficult circumstance. According to Brigham (1995, p. 447), modern capital structure theory began in 1958, Since that point of time, researchers have attempted to explain how firms choose their capital structure. Literature of the 1980s has attempted to explain small firm financing decisions by using modern financial theories. McConnell and Pettit (1984) suggested that small businesses generally have proportionally less debt than large firms because: (1) small firms generally have lower marginal tax rates than larger firms, thereby, less tax deduction benefit of debt, (2) small firms may have higher bankruptcy costs than large firms, and (3) small firms may find it more difficult to express their business health to creditors. Another attempt to explain small firm financing behaviour relied on agency theory. Agency theory holds that investors who have equity or debt in a firm require costs to monitor the investment of their funds by management or the small business owner (agency costs). This view suggests that financing is based on the owner-manager being able to assess these agency costs for each type of financing, and then select the lowest cost method of financing the firms activities. One weakness of this explanation is that no one has yet been able to measure agency costs, even in large firms (Myers, 1984). In contrast, more recent theoretical and empirical work suggests that a strategic perspective may have promise in explaining the financing decisions. Barton and Gordon (1988) suggest that the following characteristics must be accounted for in any explanation of firm financing decisions: behavior at the firm level fact that the capital structure decision is made in an open systems context by top management, and decisions reflects multiple objectives and environmental factors, not all of which are financial in nature The arguments of Barton and Gordon (1988) for the management choice perspective on large-firm financing decisions may have even more relevance and validity for small firms. First of all, because most small firms are not actively traded on a financial market as large, public firms are, they are unconcerned with the financial markets assessment of their capital structure. As a result, modern financial leverage theory, which is based on the markets assessment of total stock valuation, does not always apply. Second, as Levin and Travis (1987) pointed out the owners attitudes toward personal risk not the capital structuring policies public companies use determine what amounts of debt and equity are acceptable. In effect, the authors argue that small firms choose debt based on personal, managerial preference. Conversely, Norton (1991) provided empirical evidence on capital structure selection by conducting a survey of 400 small, high-growth corporations. In his survey, respondents were asked to describe the underlying firm philosophy in making debt and equity decisions. There were 261 respondents answering this question and the results are shown in Table 2.3. Other empirical evidence on capital structure was provided by Peterson and Shulman (1987). Peterson and Shulman (1987) analyzed the empirical data collected for 1984 International Small Business Congress. Approximately 130 questions were asked in 4,000 interviews conducted in 12 countries including Brazil, Colombia, Spain, Kenya, Cameroon, Indonesia, USA, Canada, West Germany, United Kingdom, Netherlands, and Japan. The survey questionnaire contains information regarding the source of funds, including traditional debt, internal equity, friends/relatives, and trade suppliers. The actual percentage of each source that a firm employs varies depending on such factors as (1) age of firm, (2) location of the firm, (3) cost of the source, (4) availability of the source, (5) profitability of the firm, (6) growth level of the firm, and (7) information flows. The results of the study show that a life cycle of capital structure among small growing firms depend on age, size, and economic development. Most firms appear to be initially dependent on relatives/friends and personal equity for expansion/working capital needs and over time are able to rely on more heavily on traditional source of bank debt for financial support. Since firm managers/owners will attempt to minimize the overall cost of capital, the firm is seen as having a rising level of debt as it becomes available. This section reviewed the literature of financial management practices of SMEs in the developed countries. Most previous researchers in the literature concentrated on examining, investigating and describing the behavior of SMEs in implementing financial management. Specific areas of financial management practices including accounting information system, financial reporting and analysis, working capital management, fixed asset management and capital structure management, have attracted the attention of many researchers. However, their findings are mainly related to exploring and describing behavior of SMEs in financial management practices. As a result, they provided many descriptive findings but seem to lack the associative findings of the relationship between financial management practices and financial performance of SMEs. 2.4 Research Model Based on the literature, this research chapter was seeking to provide an overview of the findings of financial management practices, financial characteristics and SME growth and survival. Related to financial management practices, most previous researchers from the literature concentrated on examining, investigating and describing the behaviour of SMEs in implementing financial management. The specific areas of financial management practices including financial reporting and analysis, working capital management, fixed asset management and capital structure management have attracted the attention of many researchers. Their findings are mainly related to exploring and describing behaviour of SMEs in financial management practices. Although they provided much descriptive statistical data and empirical evidence on SME financial management practices, it appears that there are some limitations in past research, which need to be addressed. Firstly, most empirical evidence comes from developed economies such as the USA, UK, Canada and Australia. Evidence seems to lack evidence from emerging economies, especially from the transiting economies such as Vietnam and China. Secondly, most researchers in the literature only focus on investigating and describing financial management practices, whereas few examine the impact of financial management practices on SME profitability. It will be difficult to convince financial management practitioners of the importance of financial management until evidence on the impact of financial management practices on SME profitability is provided and the relationship between the two variables are discovered. In addition to financial management practices, the literature also provided the valuable findings related to financial characteristics of SMEs. Four variables including liquidity, financial leverage, activity and profitability are popularly used by previous researchers to identify and measure financial characteristics of SMEs. Based on these findings provided by previous researchers and these gaps, a model of the impact of financial management on SME is developed. Such a model is presented in Figures 2.7. Figure 2.7 describes the detailed model of the impact of financial management practices on SMEs growth and survival in which the components measuring financial management practices such as financial reporting and analysis, working capital management, fixed asset management, capital structure management and financial planning, and components measuring financial characteristics such as liquidity, financial leverage, and business activity are identified.

How People Grow Reflection Paper by Cloud and Townsend Free Essays

REFLECTION PAPER OF HOW PEOPLE GROW BOOK BY CLOUD AND TOWNSENDVillatoro-Ramirez Counseling Department Denver Seminary Monte Hasz Psy. D. Elisabeth A. We will write a custom essay sample on How People Grow Reflection Paper by Cloud and Townsend or any similar topic only for you Order Now Nesbit, Ph. D. CO 631 01 Career Development and Assessment October 8, 2012 Reading How People Grow (Cloud and Townsend, 2001) has been an interesting experience because the author of this paper’s knowledge about counseling has been transformed in different ways. This reading has forced me to evaluate my own approach to counseling and my spiritual life has been impacted through the reflection about grace and law as well. I appreciate that this book has already been translated to Spanish language, which has given me the opportunity to read faster and better understanding of some ideas because Spanish is my first language. I have already included this book as a required reading to the course of Pastoral Care, which is taught at Denver Seminary’s Hispanic Initiatives because in my personal opinion this book is useful for all people in Christian ministry who wants to know how people grow. Thus, through this paper I will explain my understanding on how people grow according to Cloud and Townsend. In addition, I will critique the book comparing it with two of the systems of integration presented in class by Drs. Nesbit and Hasz. To accomplishing it this paper has been divided in three areas. The first explains my personal understanding about what Cloud and Townsend (2001) say about how people grow. The second area compares this book with two systems of integration, which are Biblical counseling and the Integration approach. Finally, the rest of the paper focuses on reflection and application as a resource for clients. First, I think Cloud and Townsend (2001) use the concept of Christian counseling and discipleship or personal growth in the same way. For them there is not difference between spiritual life and real life (21). The heart of their book presents the idea of working on relational and emotional issues back into the mainstream of spiritual growth (21). It can be seen in the chapter the Paradise lost where Cloud started to describe that at the time that he began his ministry there were four models of how people grow (16). He was clear saying that he saw value in these four models practicing all of them in some degree even though he was inclined for the model of truth which held that the truth would the person free. If the person was not free or some area of life was not working it must be because lacked truth in the life of this person (16). However, and even though Cloud (2001) saw people improve, and prayer, learning Scripture, and repentance were very powerful elements in healing many clinical conditions he realized that something was missing in all these elements (18). He realized that all these spiritual methods did not resolve some problems (18). People were helped but not cured (18). Thus, Cloud (2001) became disillusioned and went for further training and has experience with sincere Christian people who had been very diligent about spiritual growth but without success (19). However, he continued to work in Christian counseling for a few years more when he started to see processes that actually changed people’s lives (19). These processes were not the traditional Christian way to grow that he had learned. These processes involved deep transformations of the soul and there was the spiritual life, where we learned about God and grew in our relationship to him, and then there was the emotional and relational life, where we learned how to solve real-life problems (19). In other words, both Cloud and Townsend (2001) believe that the issues why people come for counseling are not growth issues or counseling issues, but spiritual growth issues (21). In addition, Cloud and Townsend (2001) emphasis that spiritual growth should affect relationship problems, emotional problems, and all other problems of life (22). For them there is no difference between spiritual life and real life because it is all one. They go through the major categories of Christian doctrine and talk about how each doctrine applies to personal growth (23). Second, about the comparison of this book with two systems of integration, I think in some point Cloud and Townsend (2010) are part of the biblical counseling approach which focus is on the sufficiency of the Scripture for counseling needs. A definite strength for Cloud and Townsend’s book is their use of the Bible and appeal to its authority as well. Contrary to Scott’s presentation of Biblical counseling, Cloud and Townsend (2010) are not directive and sermonic. They are more practical and enlighten the process of how people grow through the emotional and relational life, where they share practical ideas about how to solve real-life problems. In this sense, there is not way to use their method out of the church or Christian environments, which I think it is a weakness of their method. In other words, following this methodology a counselor would not seek the governmental endorsement of a professional license and cannot work in secular counseling settings as a rule. Because Cloud and Townsend (2001) at the beginning of their book expressed through some examples of Christian people facing mental problems in a hospital, I thought that they may lean toward the integration approach looking to secular models for treatment techniques. However, in the rest of their book they did not mention about a different way of treatment more than practical counseling application of the Bible. In addition to this point I can say that it seems to me that Cloud and Townsend (2001) use group therapy as a source of help people even though they say that working in group is an external spiritual source that God has given us to grow. I think to working in a Christian environment, this idea of groups to help people to grow is powerful. However, it seems to me that Cloud and Townsend (2001) did not want to be related to the four methods that were at that time they began to work on counseling. However, this book ends doing almost the same thing that biblical counseling in the sense that does not giving space for secular techniques as a source of help other than the Bible. Cloud and Townsend (2001) differentiate internal and external sources that God has given us to grow (126). For them internal sources are Bible, prayer, and Holy Spirit and external sources are all help that others can gives us as a way of help. In this sense, they talk widely about the work in groups, which I think it may be a secular technique however they did not recognize that. It seems to me that they are ambiguous not telling that they are combining some secular techniques in their work at Christian environments. Finally, because Cloud and Townsend (2001) were clear to say that their desire that their book be practical, and help the reader (I think Christian reader) to understand how the growth process is theological. I agree that in my life they accomplish that desire because there are some areas of application that I can mention that would like to implement in my ministry. First thing that I learned in the reading of â€Å"How people grow† Cloud and Townsend, 2001) was the concept of grace and law. I think in our Christian world we have misunderstood the concept of grace and that is why we live under the idea of a God who is ready to punish us. At least it is what I discovered on my own life through this reading. I like how Cloud and Townsend (2001) explained that grace is something that we cannot give ourselves because it comes from outside of u s, as unmerited favor; and we can not do anything to obtain grace (127). It was powerful to me learning that grace is an external source of healing that we can give and receive through the body of Jesus, the church. I appreciate that Cloud and Townsend (2001) remind us that God created us to be in relationship with others so it is through others that people can grow as well. I love this concept because it is contrary with what our individualistic culture says. In addition, this concept is contrary with some teachings that say that people do not need other people at all because Christ alone is sufficient or that his Word or prayer is enough. These teachings actively and directly lead others to not depend on people at all because they think it is wrong. I like how Cloud and Townsend (2001) explained that the Bible teaches that all these things are part of the process, including other people (121). Through the book both of them Cloud and Townsend (2001) emphasized loudly the role of the body in the process of how people grow. In sum, how people grow (Cloud and Townsend, 2001) is a great tool for counselors who work in Christian environments because offers practical ideas about based on the Scripture. Differently to the Biblical counseling approach, Cloud and Townsend (2001) focus on the grace instead of the law. In addition, Cloud and Townsend (2001) emphasize the role of the body of Jesus as a source of growth in the life of the believer. Cloud and Townsend (2001) is not recommended for counselors who work in a secular settings even though the principles that come directly from the Bible must be applicable in the personal life that any Christian counselor no matter where his or her job’s place be. References Cloud, H. , and Townsend, J. (2001). How people grow: What the Bible reveals about personal growth. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan How to cite How People Grow Reflection Paper by Cloud and Townsend, Essays

Peter Singer in the solution to world hunger

Introduction Hunger is the craving for food that causes uneasy sensations. A person who lacks food for a prolonged period becomes exhausted and malnourished in the end (De Onis, Frongillo, and Blossner 1128). Reports indicate that 13.1% of the population in the world is hungry. In 2010, an approximated 7.6 million children died due to hunger. African countries such as Somalia, Niger, Zimbabwe, Malawi and Kenya face food scarcities form one time to another.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Peter Singer in the solution to world hunger specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The earth has the capability to produce enough food for the entire population, but the soils are not fully utilized. People in the developing nations have little potentiality to employ modernized agricultural practices and thus, they rely on lowly productive traditional methods. At the end of the day, people in developing countries are unwillingly struc k by hunger. Peter Singer position in the solution to world hunger Peter Singer is one of the most influential philosophers who encourage people to have a sense of compassion for the staving Africans. Singer has a strong belief that we collectively have significant duties to alleviate world hunger. It is ethical to have sympathy to those suffering from hunger, and according to Singer, we ought to strive to enhance the happiness of the human race by eradicating poverty. This paper analyses the topic on world hunger, why the topic is important in the study of ethics, and Peter Singer’s position on what we ought to do to alleviate world hunger. Why the topic is important to our study of ethics The hunger calamity that hits African countries from time to time has no direct distress to the people of the United States. However, the moral principles of the American people drive them to donate some of their income to help the starving nations. Peter Singer installs the moral obligati on of valuing human life. According to Singer, all lives are homogenously equivalent. Every individual’s life is highly valued, and the value cannot be stripped away whatsoever the case (Singer 366). Peter Singer’s perception of life plays a critical role in upgrading our moral ethics. Therefore, regardless of the difficult life situations, or the demanding need for extra cash, compassionate people will find it ethical to donate some of their income to the less privileged individuals. Generally, the topic on world hunger touches our inner soul, and though sacrifice and donations are not compulsory, we feel obligated to sacrifice for the sake of those starving individuals. Though we may not know the starving individuals at a personal level, compassionate love forms, and we do all the doable to save their lives. Peter Singer’s solution to world hunger that states that we all have significant duties to alleviate world hunger is a very important topic in our study o f ethics.Advertising Looking for essay on ethics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Peter Singer’s perception of what we ought to do to alleviate world hunger Peter Singer is so stringent on the issue of world hunger. Singer cannot withstand the fact that Americans are living luxurious lives whereas some people in Africa are dying of hunger. According to Singer, it is ethical for every person to work towards ensuring there is mutual happiness of the human kingdom. To alleviate world hunger, people ought to donate all monies spent on the luxurious lifestyles to charities that reach the starving individuals. According to Singer, whenever people spend unnecessarily, they enhance the death of innocent children (Singer 370). Recent reports indicate that Peter spares at least one-fifth of his earning for the sake of the less privileged. The money is given to famine relief agencies located across the globe to reach the starving individuals. Peter Singer could not bear up with the fact that he lives comfortably while some innocent children crave for food somewhere in the world. Singer holds that the Americans have the obligation to help the world’s poor and hungered individuals. In fact, Singer feels that his 20% donation is not enough, and that he needs to increase his donations. Arguments and reasons that Peter Singer gives in support of his position People have often criticized Peter Singer’s position in alleviating world hunger. They cannot find it logical to sacrifice all their luxuries and donate the monies to alleviate world hunger. Singer’s unwavering ethics causes divisive controversies wherever he goes. However, to drive the point home, Singer uses various illustrations from books and films. The most insinuating illustration involves Bob, a man who has invested a lot in a valuable Bugatti car. Bob loves his car to the extent that he opts to sacrifice the life of an innocent ch ild to save his car from being crashed by a runaway train. This sad incident portrays selfishness for luxury at the expense of a life. Peter Singer describes Bob as a fellow who does not know the value of life. Many audiences would feel that Bob’s deeds were gravely wrong. He could just let his Bugatti be smashed and save the life of the child. From the illustration, Singer likens the American’s who feel pinched in sacrificing their luxurious spending to save starving individuals. According to Peter Singer, people should judge their actions and determine if they are ethically worthy (Singer 373). People should ensure that the consequences of their actions are unbiased. There is the utilitarian stance of Singer that states that a person can sacrifice one life to save many. Though not practical, Singer points out that we can sacrifice the $9,000 spent annually on a child in the American families to save 45 African children. However, letting a child die in the name of sac rificing for a stranger is not only scandalous, but also ethically unacceptable.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Peter Singer in the solution to world hunger specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Conclusion From the discussions, it is noteworthy that Peter Singer insists on people to become selfless to alleviate world hunger. Singer stands strong to support his perception that people have to surrender their superfluous income to alleviate poverty. While Peter Singer’s utilitarianism is too much for people to handle, I would propose that people should donate the much they can. The famine relief agencies should then invest in projects that render long-lasting solutions to world hunger. Sustainability projects to alleviate poverty will work towards alleviating world hunger (Shaohua and Ravallion 3341). As stated before, the soils of the earth have the potentiality to produce enough food for every individual. Howe ver, the sad part of it is that those people in the developing nations do not have the capacity to invest in modernized and improvised agricultural practices. It is also noteworthy that a great percentage of the people in the developing nations do not have the financial potentiality to afford a balanced diet. Therefore, upgrading agriculture though investing in environmentally sustainable agricultural innovations, and investing in small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in the hunger stricken countries is the only way to alleviate hunger in the end. Works Cited De Onis, Mercedes, Edward Frongillo, and Monika Blossner. â€Å"Is Malnutrition Declining? An Analysis of Changes in Levels of Child Malnutrition since 1980.† Bulletin of the World Health Organization 98.5 (2000): 1222–1233. Print. Shaohua, Chen, and Martin Ravallion.  Ã¢â‚¬Å"How Have the World’s Poorest Fared since the Early 1980s?† World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 15.7 (2004): 3341. Print. S inger, Peter. â€Å"The Singer Solution to World Poverty.† In Best American Essays. Fourth Fourth College Edition Ed. Robert Atwan. Boston: Houghton Mifflin (2004): 366-373. Print. This essay on Peter Singer in the solution to world hunger was written and submitted by user Conner Y. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Japan1 essays

Japan1 essays During the 1980s, Japan had one of the most profitable and efficient economies in the world. But a recent recession has forced Japan to make changes and pushed them back, out of the realm of being an economic superpower. This leaves just one question; when analyzing Japans strengths and weakness, is it likely for them to return to the economic status they enjoyed during the 1980s? The answer is no. Because of Japanese false illusions, increasing national debt and deflation, combined with other factors, it is unlikely that Japan will be able to make a full recovery. When analyzing something as complex as a country suffering from a national recession, it is important to note their various strengths. During the 1980s, Japan exploded onto the global economic scene. The Japanese established themselves among the ranks of the United States and various European powers. One of the greatest strengths enjoyed by Japan is the absence of any military institution. After World War II, the United States, in congruence with the other allied powers, declared that Japan was no longer to have a national military. Just think about that, military expenses account for a great portion of any countries national budget. Japan, now without military, had large amounts of money freed up by this policy (Nishiyama, 2). They no longer had to endure the expenses of maintaining any standing military, nor did they have to invest money in keeping pace with military technological advancements. Instead, Japan was promised military assistance by the United States, if any s ituation were to arise. With more money available to the Japanese government, they were able to distribute more to other sectors of the country. This was an extreme boost for the economic situation of Japan and their citizens (Nishiyama, 2). But as time moved on, the United States slowly moved to lessen its role in the protection of Japan. They allowed J...

Kiva - Ancestral Pueblo Ceremonial Structures

Kiva - Ancestral Pueblo Ceremonial Structures A kiva is a special purpose building used by Ancestral Puebloan (previously known as Anasazi) people in the American southwest and Mexican northwest. The earliest, and simplest, examples of kivas are known from Chaco Canyon for the late Basketmaker III phase (500–700 CE). Kivas are still in use among contemporary Puebloan people, as a gathering place used when communities reunite to perform rituals and ceremonies.   Key Takeaways: Kiva A kiva is a ceremonial building used by Ancestral Puebloan people.The earliest are known from Chaco Canyon about 599 CE, and they are still used today by contemporary Puebloan people.  Archaeologists identify ancient kivas based on a series of architectural characteristics.They can be round or square, subterranean, semi-subterranean, or at ground level.  A sipapu in a kiva is a small hole thought to represent a door to the underworld. Kiva Functions Prehistorically, there was typically about one kiva for every 15 to 50 domestic structures. In modern pueblos, the number of kivas varies for each village. Kiva ceremonies today are mainly performed by male community members, although women and visitors can attend some of the performances. Among Eastern Pueblo groups kivas are usually round in shape, but among Western Puebloan groups (such as Hopi and Zuni) they are usually square. Although it is difficult to generalize across the entire American southwest over time, kivas likely function(ed) as meeting places, structures used by subsets of the community for a variety of socially integrative and domestic activities. Larger ones, called Great Kivas, are larger structures typically built by and for the whole community. They are typically greater than 30 m square in floor area. Kiva Architecture When archaeologists characterize a prehistoric structure as a kiva, they typically use the presence of one or more of several distinguishing traits, the most recognizable of which is being partly or completely underground: most kivas are entered through the roofs. The other common traits used to define kivas include deflectors, fire pits, benches, ventilators, floor vaults, wall niches, and sipapus. hearths or fire pits: hearths in the later kivas are lined with adobe brick and have rims or collars above the floor level and ash pits to the east or northeast of the hearthsdeflectors: a deflector is a method of keeping the ventilating wind from affecting the fire, and they range from stones set into the eastern lip of the adobe hearth to U-shaped walls partially surrounding the hearth complexventilator shafts oriented toward the east: all subterranean kivas need ventilation to be bearable, and roof ventilation shafts are typically oriented to the east although south-oriented shafts are common in the Western Anasazi region, and some kivas have second subsidiary openings to the west to provide increased airflow.benches or banquettes: some kivas have raised platforms or benches in place along the wallsfloor vaultsalso known as foot drums or spirit channels, floor vaults are subfloor channels radiating out from the central hearth or in parallel lines across the floorsipapus: a small h ole cut into the floor, a hole known in modern Puebloan cultures as shipap, the place of emergence or place of origin, where humans emerged from the underworld wall niches: recesses cut into the walls that may represent similar functions as sipapus and in some locations are part of painted murals These features arent always present in every kiva, and it has been suggested that in general, smaller communities used general use structures as occasional kivas, while larger communities had larger, ritually specialized facilities. Pithouse- Kiva Debate The main identifying characteristic of a prehistoric kiva is that it was built at least partly underground. This characteristic is linked by archaeologists to earlier subterranean but (mainly) residential pithouses, which were typical of ancestral Puebloan societies prior to the technological innovation of adobe brick. The changeover from subterranean houses as domestic residences to exclusively ritual functions is central to pithouse to pueblo transition models, associated as it is with the innovation of adobe brick technology. Adobe surface architecture spread across the Anasazi world between 900–1200 CE (depending on the region). The fact that a kiva is subterranean is not a coincidence: kivas are associated with origin myths  and the fact that theyre built subterranean may have to do with an  ancestral memory of when everyone lived underground. Archaeologists recognize when a pithouse functioned as a kiva by the characteristics listed above: but after about 1200, most structures were built above ground and subterranean structures stopped including features typical of a kiva. The debate centers on a handful of questions. Are those pithouses without kiva-like structures built after above-ground pueblos were common really kivas? Can it be that kivas built before above-ground structures are simply not being recognized? And eventually- is how archaeologists define a kiva truly representing kiva rituals? Mealing Rooms as Womens Kivas As has been noted in several ethnographic studies, kivas are primarily places where men congregate. Anthropologist Jeannette Mobley-Tanaka (1997) has suggested that womens rituals may have been associated with mealing houses. Mealing rooms or houses are subterranean structures where people (presumably women) ground maize. The rooms held artifacts and furniture associated with grain grinding, such as manos, metates, and hammerstones, and they also have corrugated pottery jars and bin storage facilities. Mobley-Tanaka noted that in her admittedly small test case, the ratio of mealing rooms to kivas is 1:1, and most mealing rooms were located geographically close to kivas. Great Kiva In Chaco Canyon, the better-known kivas were constructed between 1000 and 1100 CE, during the Classic Bonito phase. The largest of these structures are called Great Kivas, and large and small-sized kivas are associated with Great House sites, such as Pueblo Bonito, Peà ±asco Blanco, Chetro Ketl, and Pueblo Alto. In these sites, great kivas were built in central, open plazas. A different type is the isolated great kiva such as the site of Casa Rinconada, which probably functioned as a central place for adjacent, smaller communities. Archaeological excavations have shown that kiva roofs were supported by wooden beams. This wood, mainly from Ponderosa pines and spruces, had to come from a huge distance  since Chaco Canyon was a region poor of such forests. The use of timber, arriving at Chaco Canyon through such a long-distance network, must, therefore, have reflected an incredible symbolic power. In the Mimbres region, great kivas began to disappear by the mid-1100s or so, replaced by plazas, perhaps a result of contact with Mesoamerican groups on the Gulf Coast. Plazas provide public, visible space for shared communal activities in contrast to kivas, which are more private and hidden. Updated by K. Kris Hirst Selected Sources Crown, Patricia L., and W. H. Wills. Modifying Pottery and Kivas at Chaco: Pentimento, Restoration, or Renewal? American Antiquity 68.3 (2003): 511–32. Print.Gilman, Patricia, Marc Thompson, and Kristina Wyckoff. Ritual Change and the Distant: Mesoamerican Iconography, Scarlet Macaws, and Great Kivas in the Mimbres Region of Southwestern New Mexico. American Antiquity 79.1 (2014): 90–107. Print.Mills, Barbara J. What’s New in Chaco Research? Antiquity 92.364 (2018): 855–69. Print.Mobley-Tanaka, Jeannette L. Gender and Ritual Space During the Pithouse to Pueblo Transition: Subterranean Mealing Rooms in the North American Southwest. American Antiquity 62.3 (1997): 437–48. Print.Schaafsma, Polly. The Cave in the Kiva: The Kiva Niche and Painted Walls in the Rio Grande Valley. American Antiquity 74.4 (2009): 664–90. Print.

Patchwork Text Economic for Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Patchwork Text Economic for Business - Essay Example neration: how Britain has bankrupted its youth’ (Howker and Malik, 2010) and also on youth unemployment factors across the world along with their potential causes and solutions. The book, ‘Jilted Generation: how Britain has bankrupted its youth’ (Howker and Malik, 2010) focuses on the young generation of UK and the way political and economic climate has rendered them jilted. The poor economic condition of the youth leads to weak economic development in future, where they would be unable to pay off debts, receive healthcare and pension benefits. The authors of the book claim that the young generation of UK has received little benefits from the external environment to grow and prosper. This includes low training and development, late start of career, low educational growth and higher dependency on parents. If jobs are not available, then the young generation shall not be able to pay off debts or invest in house and property. Lack of earning also demotivates them to pursue higher qualification. Large sections of the youth take up smaller part-time jobs to support themselves. Since the youth cannot afford to buy houses by themselves, due to the high rental rates, they prefer living with their parents. Therefore, they remain to be in the shade and care of their parents, which causes them to develop lack of self-sustaining abilities. The dependency factor has also led them to be less serious about education and growth. However, the young generation does not compromise on receiving the basic education that would provide them with jobs; however, owing to lack of experience, they are ignored by companies. In order to eradicate the problem of youth employment, the U.K. government had taken measures such as, ‘Mandatory Work Activity’ and ‘The Young People Trailblazer’. Under such programs, the youth received training from reputed companies like, Tesco, Primark and several street store organizations and the selected good performers were offered jobs in the

Marketing Plan Harley-Davidson Dyna Street Bob Research Paper

Marketing Plan Harley-Davidson Dyna Street Bob - Research Paper Example It is acknowledged by reader that information to be furnished in this marketing plan is in all respects confidential in nature, other than information which is in the public domain through other means and that any disclosure or use of same by reader may cause serious harm or damage to ______________. Upon request, this document is to be immediately returned to ________. ___________________ Signature ___________________ Name (typed or printed) ___________________ Date This is a marketing plan. It does not imply an offering of securities. ... Over the years, the firm has met numerous challenges as well as successes. Currently, Harley-Davidson has a number of motorbikes designed and targeted at different demographic groups. Among these is the Dyna Street Bob which is a sporting motorbike targeted at the younger generations. This product is intended to bring new marketing orientation in the market. This is because although it is targeted at the young people in general, it is also targeted at women as a new market. More women are becoming more interested in motor-biking and this is a new market which Harley-Davidson should use for to expand its market share of the motorbike market. As Taylor (para 1) says, Harley-Davidson has been accused of not targeting new markets and this will be an opportunity to look at the new market. 2.0 Situational Analysis In 1907 William Harley and Arthur Davidson incorporated the Harley-Davidson Motorcycle Company. AMF acquired the company in 1969 and nearly tripled production in the following 4 years. Increased production led to poorly performing products, which led to Honda gaining market segment and eventually a buyout of AMF in 1981 by Vaughn Beals and a group of other HD managers. Over the next 20 years HD incorporated lean operating principles, acquired rival companies effectively opening new niche markets and survived an instance of a primary lender refusing to advance further cash. In 1997 a former Honda manager, Berryman, revamped HD’s supply chain management system to further reduce waste. Subsequently a focus was placed on products that would open up more niche markets and help move HD away from their typical target demographic. Today HD realizes increased profits and revenues from these changes, but also faces